Chapter 11. The Strong Force.

The strong force keeps quarks together in neutrons and protons, and it keeps protons and neutrons together in atoms. Our model operates with a universe without any attractive force. Hence real gluons as directly attractive particles are ruled out.

According to the widely accepted standard model of particle physics there is a particle called the gluon. The name comes from its ability to “glue” quarks together in protons and neutrons, and likewise how it keeps neutrons and protons together in atomic cores. The strange thing with the gluon is that it has never been observed, only the effects of something with the properties of this theoretical (virtual) particle has been seen. Actually, one has never seen anything which can properly prove that there is any direct attractive force in the universe at all. Now physicists hope to see the gluon directly at the new super-accelerator at Cern, the large hadron collider. I’ll put my 2 cents on a split verdict: They will see more clearly the indirect effects of the gluon, but they will not see the gluon itself. The reason is that it does not exist, it is merely a virtual particle, a mathematical phantom, which incorporates the properties of the K vacuum.

Having denounced the existence of the gluon as a real particle which works by direct attractive force - and hence as a proper description of the strong force per se - it is perhaps time to come up with a very good explanation for the strong force. Let us see what elements we can utilise from other models for the K particle.

In our description of gravity we already came up with a model for how an attractive gravitational force can be orchestrated by a repulsive K particle. The first element we needed for explaining gravity was the background K flux as an enormous, steady particle pressure. As long as the Ks are just absorbed and reemitted by matter, no pressure differences arise. But a minute K amplitude reduction in matter causes a minute deficiency in the K pressure from the side of matter. The average pressure from the opposite side will exercise the gravitational force by proxy, because the average background K pressure is slightly greater than the K pressure from matter due to this tiny transformation in matter. The second element we needed for explaining gravity was that the extremely high ratio between Ks which were just absorbed, retained and emitted, and the net effect of those Ks which were transformed in terms of virtual K neutrinos. How else could gravity be perceived as a continuous force for rather small pieces of matter, and work proportional to the amount of matter for large celestial bodies? Dealing with gravity, the net force always stayed small compared to the total particle pressure, however big the body of matter would be. What then if we use this average background K particle pressure for all it is worth? Can we think of a model for neutrons and protons which utilises K pressure differences almost to its maximum? Perhaps some K sign specific absorption centres much like what we have envisioned for creating electrostatic forces can be taken one step further? Let us see where this third element of K sign specific absorption centres can bring us.

According to our model, nature is not equipped with any kind of direct attractive force. On the particle level there seems to be only the K flux deficiency which provides attractive basic forces. Thus an extremely strong force should indicate that there must be a large degree of K vacuum, perhaps K flux deficiency in percentages of the total K flux. Since a total K vacuum seems impossible, it is always this partial K vacuum we talk about when using the term K vacuum. Especially between quarks, the possibility for a large degree of K vacuum should be good. To achieve a K vacuum between quarks, there must be K absorption centres in neutrons and protons. These K absorption centres must steer the K emission in such a way that there are more or less emission free zones. In such a model a quark can be a K absorption centre, or a quark may consist of several absorption centres. To match different sign properties of quarks, it is evident that the K absorption centres are sign specific in certain ways (this is when you get the hunch that sign may be the same as intrinsic spin).

Now we must evaluate in which way a K absorption centre can steer the K emission in certain directions and thereby create K vacuum zones. There are many different hypothetical K absorption centres available within the concept of forces by proxy. The shapes can vary. And since they probably rotate, they can emit their Ks mostly along their axis of rotation, or along the equator. Let us look at some specific candidates which can generate the strong force as a K vacuum, without deciding in favour of any specific design.

Our candidate for the strong force is K absorption centres which absorb Ks at random and steer the K emission in certain directions, leaving zones close to the absorption centre with partial K vacuum, towards which the background K flux will push another absorption centre. K absorption centres may be quarks or even smaller entities.

First, let us look at the two main principles for K absorption centres as instruments for the strong force, here called type 1A and 2A. Thereafter we will look at some modified absorption centres, Types 1B, 2B and 3, which seem to be more compatible with the standard model.

Fig.17. Two K absorption centres which absorb only one type of K sign, and completely ignore the opposite K sign.

Type 1A K absorption centre (fig. 17)

• Both absorption centres are K⁺ absorbers (could just as well have been two K^- centres) which only interact with K⁺ and completely ignore K^-.

• K⁺ are emitted directionally along the centres axis of rotation.

• All K^- pass through without interacting.

• K^- between the centres have no effect since they do not interact with any of the centres.

• Between the 2 centres there are no K⁺ coming directly from the other centre.

• The K⁺ vacuum between the centres constitutes the strong force.

• The strong force is the net surplus of K⁺ made up from the average background K flux pressing the two centres together as a force by proxy.

Fig. 18. Two absorption centres which absorb both K signs.

Type 2A K absorption centre (fig. 18).

• Both K⁺ and K^- are absorbed from all directions and emitted directionally along the rotation axis.

• The K vacuum at the equator of the centre constitutes the strong force as a force by proxy, executed by the average background flux of regular Ks.

• Both selective K⁺ centres and selective K^– centres and any mix of these two types of centres will be strongly pressed towards a type 2A centre (if they are close enough).

• The two centres will align their sign emission opposite to minimise the dipole effect.

 In the two previous figures we have shown the two extreme cases of what an absorption centre can be like. In Fig. 17, the centres only react with one kind of K sign, and totally ignore the opposite K sign, In Fig. 18, the absorption centres are equally receptive to both K signs. But these simple configurations may prove to be problematic.

If the quarks are the absorption centres, and the mesons are composed of a quark and an antiquark, then we have some problems with types 1A and 2A. What is keeping the quark-antiquark pair together in mesons together if they are of type 1A? And a pure type 2A would have itself as antiparticle, so it is also not compatible with known facts.

Type 1A and type 2A absorption centres do not fit as quarks because:

• if type 1 were a quark, then quark and antiquark would not stick together in mesons.

• if type 2 were a quark, then quark = antiquark, which is not true.

A type 3 like the electric absorption centre can do the trick, and the quark-antiquark in the mesons could be kept together by the electric force, but is that strong enough? Also in the nucleons we have the question of what keeps the quarks together. It is something stronger than the electric force. To accommodate the need for a stronger force, we should look for a type of absorption centre which is not quite so sign specific. If we allow an absorption centre to be mostly sign specific, but let it absorb and emit some Ks of the opposite sign, we can easily compose nucleons where quarks of different sign preference still are attracted to each other. Let us therefore loosen up the rigor of our two basic types of absorption centres, and imagine any mix of these two extremes, where the absorption centres favour one kind of K sign more than the other.

Type 1B absorption centre.

• Absorbs one K sign and mostly ignores the opposite K sign, but absorbs some Ks of opposite sign as well.

• Absorbed Ks are emitted predominantly along the centre’s axis of rotation.

• The K vacuum at the equator of the centre constitutes the strong force as a force by proxy.

• Another type 1B absorption centre with the same K sign preference will be attracted to this centre with a very strong force, while a type 1B of the opposite preference will be attracted with a not quite so strong force.

Type 2B absorption centre.

• Absorbs both K signs, but slightly more of the preferred K sign than the other.

• Absorbed Ks are emitted predominantly along the centre’s axis of rotation.

• The K vacuum at the equator of the centre constitutes the strong force as a force by proxy.

• Any type absorption centre will be attracted to the vacuum zones of a type 2 centre, but an absorption centre of the preferred K sign will experience a stronger K vacuum than a centre with the opposite K sign.

Type 3. The combined strong force and electric absorption centre.

• Absorbs both K signs, but it has a preferred K sign of which it absorbs more than it does of the other K sign.

• It switches sign of some or all absorbed Ks from the less preferred sign to the more preferred sign.

• Absorbed Ks are emitted predominantly along the centre’s axis of rotation.

• The K vacuum at the equator of the centre constitutes the strong force as a force by proxy.

• This centre has an attractive effect on both kinds of type 3 centres, but more so on the kind of centre which has the same preference.

• This centre also generates long range electric fields, but at short range the repulsive Ks are steered away and do not spoil the vacuum effect between centres with equal K sign preference. See Figures 14 and 15.

So it seems that at the level of quarks, we are left with types 1B, 2B and 3, while the quarks themselves may consist of several absorption centres which are built around a type 2A absorption centre. Or the quarks may be the basic particles in nucleons and hence represent an absorption centre of type 1B, 2B and 3.

Note that the absorption centres emit Ks partly or fully separated according to K sign, and hence they locally create strong bipolar electromagnetic fields even when the absorption centres carry no net charge themselves.

Further possible properties of absorption centres.

All absorption centres shown here have emission along their axis of rotation with a consequential vacuum along the equator. One may of course imagine the opposite configuration for all these types, with emission along the equator, and vacuum zones at the poles.

Fig. 19. Here we see the same principle for the strong force by steered K emission, only the emission is steered along the equator, creating K vacuum along the axis of rotation.

Likewise one cannot assume that the absorption centres are spherical, their probability distribution may just as well be like donuts or any other figure which makes sense. One guess would be that they have probability “shapes” more like electrons in molecules. (which would make it pretty messy compared to our spherical figures).

Strong force between nucleons.

Inside the nucleon, the absorption centres can come pretty close to each other, and hence the K vacuum will be strong. Between nucleons the distance will be much greater, and there will be a composite emission pattern from several absorption centres. Hence the K vacuum effect will diminish substantially, and the residual strong force still earns it name in our model. Asymmetrical K emission patterns from the nucleons will still allow for the strong nuclear force between nucleons. Some zones around a nucleon have a certain K⁺ vacuum, while other zones have a K⁺ surplus relative to the general background K flux. Likewise, some zones will have a certain K^- vacuum while others have a K^- surplus. What we need to do is to build models for the K flux emission patterns from protons and neutrons, as well as a model for the position of their respective K⁺ and K- absorption centres to understand how attractive and repulsive emission zones will affect the nucleons. At this stage one should be open for the possibility that two nucleons may use one or more absorption centres as common centres for 2 nucleons, like 2 atoms can get complete shells of electrons in the molecule when the 2 atoms share the same electron. If an absorption centre acts like this, it will be a sort a gluon which creates contractive K vacuum. However, such a construction is not at all mandatory for the model of K absorption centres to work. Rather to the contrary, the residual strong force is probably an effect of K emission patterns.

Is a quark a K absorption centre? Perhaps, but when we see how neutrons and protons behave as they start adding kinetic energy, it seems quite likely that the quarks are made up of several absorption centres. Then there would be more rotational freedom in the nucleon, and a mechanism for adjusting the emission angle with increased speed could be more easily adapted. Also knowing that an electron is an absorption centre of some kind with a mass which is 1/2000 that of a proton, could indicate multiple smaller absorption centres in a quark.

Presenting so many candidates for the absorption centres may be confusing. However, it is all a matter of mapping the properties of the different quarks and nucleons, and observing which models of absorption centres will fit with nature. There are many degrees of freedom here, so the task could take some time. If there are only the 3 quarks the task is more limited, if there should be tens or hundreds of absorption centres in one quark, it may become trickier.

Note that whatever the configuration of a neutron or proton may be, the strong force will have elements of electric force, because K vacuum or surplus depend on the distribution of K⁺ and K^-, and how the emission pattern around a nucleon creates sign specific zones, which can be attractive or repulsive. One could talk about multiple electric monopoles for the repulsive part of the emission, but we rather say that some zones are above average in K⁺ and/or K^- flux, while other zones are low on K⁺ and/or K^- flux. Hence, the normal way to think about electric charge does not work so well. Outside the atom, a K⁺ surplus in one zone would imply a K^- deficiency elsewhere, since the strong force does not set up any long range electric field.

At the beginning of this chapter, I denounced the existence of the gluon if the rest of our model holds against scientific scrutiny. Contrary to the attractive graviton, which cannot have any future in our model, there is still an opening for a gluon-like particle. The gluon may be a real particle, namely an absorption centre which creates attractive forces through its K vacuum. Then we don’t have to mess with the standard model very much to adapt our model. However, one should explore as the main hypothesis that the gluon is no longer needed, and that the elementary particles like quarks manage to set up the necessary K vacuum for the strong force without any intermediary absorption centres (as gluons would be defined here).

Consequence 25:

A rotating absorption centre is hit by a flux of K⁺ and K^- all over the centre, and depending on the type of centre, it may absorb one K sign and discriminate fully or partly against the other sign. Emission patterns of the absorbed Ks provide strong local K flux surplus in the directions of emission, which will be a repulsive force on absorption centres, which interact with the K sign which is emitted in surplus. The same emission pattern also provides a large K^- flux deficiency (K vacuum) in certain zones. K sign specific vacuum gives rise to the strong nuclear force when the general background K-flux presses 2 absorption centres together. Hence the strong force is purely a force by proxy.

When 2 nuclei connect in a small atom, they both fall in the K-flux shadow of each other, they loose K-flux, and hence they loose energy / mass and amplitude for K interaction as they are pressed together. With 4 nuclei, the 3 major absorption centres (quarks) of each nucleon can connect in strong bonding with 1 absorption centre from each of the other nuclei. This is probably why Helium is such a stable atom.

Emission patterns are crucial for the strength and range of these very strong forces, since the emission in sum must equal the background K flux, both in total, and for both K signs. There is a small correction for protons, which have a slight net surplus of K+, which even out against the K- flux from the electron. Therefore, two bonded nucleons will position their respective absorption centres in a way which achieves the best ratio between attractive vacuum forces and repelling surplus K fluxes. If there are more than 2 nucleons, the K flux density for all nucleons must be calculated.

A more specific model for the absorption centres related to quarks will be presented later, showing what kind of absorption centre goes where, and not all absorption centres suggested above will be compatible with the rules and limitations of nuclear physics. A new look at the periodic system and the formation of heavy atoms, at times with stronger K-flux in the beginning of the lifetime of a galaxy, would also be appropriate, as well as an analysis on how stability and optimal size of atoms change with decreasing K-flux in the new model.

Table comparing the basic forces within today’s paradigm (left) and according to Forces by Proxy (right) Force arrows are placed to indicate the source of the force as a visual aid.