Gravitation

What is Gravitation?

Among nature’s  three fundamental forces, gravity is probably the one that is easiest to comprehend – and most difficult to reconcile with the other forces.

We have a slightly awkward starting position for demonstrating how the K particle can perform gravity. Since the K particle has positive momentum and energy, it can never perform a gravitational contraction directly; the K particle is repulsive when sent from one elementary particle to another. Therefore it is not immediately evident that contractive forces are easy to explain using a particle with a repelling impact.

In this chapter we look at the working mechanism for gravity. We shall demonstrate how the normal K pressure from outside will press two bodies of matter towards each other without any attractive force. Our claim is that matter is not directly attracted by matter. Gravity arise when the K flux interact with matter. Then a minute part of the Ks will be transformed to K neutrinos. Therefore the K flux which is emitted from matter will have a slightly reduced ability to react with other matter. And hence the K flux from matter will exercise a slightly reduced pressure on other matter compared to the pressure exercised by the average background K flux. For this to work as contractive pressure, it requires that matter receives the hits from Ks in a directional manner, but the Ks must be emitted at random to give any net effect.

As an example for what we are looking for, consider how low air pressure is contractive relative to a normal pressure zone. A body will experience a pressure towards the low pressure zone. We argue that gravitation is performed by a normal K particle pressure from the outside (the universal K-flux), while there is a minute pressure deficiency from the side of matter due to a transformation of a tiny part of the Ks by matter.

Figure 4 shows the principle for how matter changes the K flux. In this chapter we attempt to explain the working mechanism for how the normal K pressure from outside will press two bodies of matter towards each other without any attractive force. This is what is meant with “forces by proxy”; there is a third party – the average background K flux – which really performs the force. Matter only modifies the flux of regular Ks in space.

Fig. 4. The K flux interacting with a body of matter M.

To understand gravity, we must first look at how matter modifies the regular K flux. In figure 4 we see that matter will remove a minute fraction of regular Ks by transforming them to K neutrinos. Since K neutrinos don’t interact with matter, this means that matter modifies the K pressure in the space surrounding it.

• The black, inward pointing arrows constitute the background flux of regular Ks hitting matter.

• Ks deliver their momentum as a directional vector impulse to the matter, and will after a short retention time inside matter, be emitted in a random direction.

• The white arrows indicate regular Ks which are transformed to K neutrinos, which do not interact with matter.

• The flux of regular Ks constitutes a particle pressure.

• There is no particle pressure from K neutrinos, since they pass through matter without interacting.

• The proportion of K neutrinos is here vastly exaggerated to visualize the pressure difference.

Now visualise two bodies of matter, M and m, as shown in Fig 5 below. A minute fraction of the regular K-particles is transformed to K neutrinos in both M and m. The total flux of Ks is constant from all directions, but from the side of matter there are more K neutrinos in the total K flux.

Fig. 5. Same mass M, but now simplified by showing Ks moving in from two sides only, resulting in a deficiency of regular Ks at the second mass m from the side of M, and a resulting force F from the surplus impacts from the opposite side, since the white arrows don’t count.

Hence, from the side of M facing m, there will be a surplus of K neutrinos, (i.e. a deficit in the number of regular Ks) in the K flux relative to the background K flux. Therefore the pressure on the neighbouring body m will be less from the side of M than from the opposite side.

The average background flux of regular Ks executes the force as a third party, and is therefore a force by proxy. A K which is transformed to a K neutrino will statistically always have a regular K with exactly opposite direction as a statistical counterpart wherever it goes (statistics require big numbers to be fairly accurate). For gravity to work like this, Ks must transfer their momentum directionally at absorption, while Ks are emitted in a random direction. Thereby Ks take no net momentum with them at emission.

The Duality of K interaction with EPs.

A precondition for this to work is that the Ks must be interacting extremely frequently with elementary particles (EP), and be “scattered” most of the time. “Scattering” here implicates being absorbed, retained and emitted randomly having the same amplitude for EP interaction before and after the interaction. At an extremely much lower frequency, Ks will be transformed, meaning that they are absorbed, retained and emitted with a much lower amplitude (probability) for interacting with EPs. The transformed K is called a K neutrino, K⁰. K absorption with emission of Ks in a different form must be so rare that the amount transformed by Earth is just a minute fraction of the total flux of Ks, but still enough to give a surplus of incoming particles which presses a body towards the Earth. Ks that are scattered (absorbed, retained and emitted with the same amplitude) will not constitute any change in the K-flux, as long as the K-flux is homogeneous in the first place.

There is a huge difference in frequency between regular EP interaction with Ks and EP interaction which leads to K transformation. This difference is called the duality of the K interaction with matter, and it is a precondition for gravity to work. There must be a huge frequency of regular interaction between Ks and EPs without any gravitational K transformation. Otherwise the K-flux could not transfer the resulting momentum from a minute difference in the flux of regular Ks from one side or the other. The general principle which allows for a force by proxy to work for gravity, is the principle of directional absorption and random emission of Ks in EPs. It states that at absorption a deviance in the K flux will be transferred to EPs as a vector sum of the momentums transferred, while at emission the Ks are sent out at random with no net effect on the EP. There are certain rules for conservation of kinetic energy which modify this picture, but then the steering of emission just conserve the momentum of the EP in a steady way, leaving the EP just as vulnerable to fluctuations in K flux as an EP at rest. The principle of gravitation as a force by proxy is shown in Figures 4 and 5.

Consequence 5:

Gravity works through the principle of directional absorption of the sum of momentums from regular Ks absorbed by EPs. Thereby a difference in K momentums is transferred to the EP. This is followed by random K emission, which has no net effect on the momentum of the EPs. Hence the transfer at absorption renders a net effect.

Consequence 6:

A gravitational field is the deficiency of regular K flux from the side of matter, arising when a certain fraction of Ks are transformed to K neutrinos in matter. K neutrinos travel outward from the place of emission just like regular Ks, only they have a lower amplitude (probability) for interacting with EPs. Matter will be hit by the same average number of Ks from all directions, only the amplitudes for EP interaction of the Ks will have a directional deviation. Where the K neutrinos passes through another body of matter without interacting, their statistical counterparts of regular Ks hit the same body of matter from the opposite side. The force is then proportional to the sum of regular K counterparts which constitute the K surplus from the average universal K flux. This surplus then acts as a force by proxy, and the net difference in K-flux pushes matter towards matter. This is perceived as a gravitational pull.

In the process of transforming Ks, there could be a net supply of energy to matter. However, as we shall see when considering the motion of particles with proper mass, the emitted K neutrinos must have the same energy as the regular Ks. But the amplitude for K interaction must change. Perhaps this is coupled with (or is the same as) the intrinsic “spin” property of particles? One way or another, the K looses a property which says “I can interact with EPs” when it is transformed to a K neutrino. And we have denoted this property plus and minus like K+ and K- because this is the same property which decides the electric charge. And the K neutrino has earned the 0 like K⁰.

The reason for concluding that the reaction is between Ks and elementary particles only, and not with bigger particles like atoms, is that bigger particles do not seem to react differently to gravity than a neutron. This would easily be the case if the atom as such were the target for the interaction, and not the separate elementary particles which the atom is made up of. And to perform the strong nuclear force, we’ll see that the Ks must interact with special absorption centres in nucleons. Such absorption centres for Ks may be quite small, and at most they can be the quarks themselves.

Seen from a point O where K is emitted after an interaction, an elementary particle is a target, see Fig. 6. From a given location in the universe a particle is seen by a certain space angle. The probability that a K sent from a point O will interact with the particle is proportional to the probability (squared amplitude) that the K will hit within the target. The further away the particle is from the originating point of emission of the K, the smaller its space angle will be, and the space angle (the probability for a hit) will decrease proportional to 1/r2.

Fig. 6. When a regular K is transformed to a K neutrino at O, the K neutrino is sent outwards. The figure shows the space angle of the same target A when A is a distance r and 2r away from O. In this configuration the likelihood for the K neutrino to hit the target will be proportional to 1/r².

Since there is always a regular K coming in from the opposite direction of the K neutrino, the probability of a surplus of 1 regular K hitting A and pushing it towards O decreases proportional to 1/r². The net amount of K momentum transferred follows the same dependence of distance as Newton’s law of gravitation

F = GmM/r²

In the absence of matter, the K-flux is very homogeneous from all directions. To calculate gravitation, we must look at the Ks which are transformed by matter. What is the probability that an elementary particle at distance r from matter will loose expected hits from Ks which have been transformed to K⁰ in this matter? We say that a transformed K represents a certain probability of a lost hit at the EP. This hit by the K should have pushed the EP away from the origin of transformation. The lacking K hit is equal to a net push in the direction towards the origin of the K transformation. The executive part of this force is the statistical counterpart of the transformed K coming from the opposite side. So the transformed Ks (the K neutrinos = K⁰) will statistically and mathematically behave exactly like virtual gravitons. Hence we can shamelessly use all math formerly used to demonstrate Newton’s gravitational force and the gravitational potential for proving the K-particle pressure case for different geometries of bodies of matter in order to demonstrate the new interpretation of the gravitational forces.

One thing should be noted. The argumentation has been as if the emitted K neutrino has 0 amplitude of EP interaction. This may be the case. But the K neutrino may also have a reduced amplitude for EP interaction. There may be different quantised amplitudes (probabilities) of the K⁺ and K^- for EP interaction. If so, a much larger fraction of regular Ks loose some of their amplitude. Then we have no real K neutrinos, only Ks which have variable amplitude (affinity) for EP interaction. The fraction of Ks which are transformed must be much higher in order to achieve the same result. The method for how to calculate the net gravitational force will still be the same. The force of gravity will be much more continuous when it is executed by a large number of Ks with a slightly reduced amplitude, rather than by K neutrinos. But in this first part of the presentation we will argue the case of the K neutrino because it is easier to relate to on a conceptual basis, even though it seems a less likely explanation than a minute change in the quantised amplitudes of many K⁺ and K^-.

See Fig 6. When a regular K is transformed to a K neutrino at O, the probability (squared amplitude) of interaction decreases proportional to 1/r², as the probability to hit the target decreases with 1/r². Consequently, the interaction itself must take place with a constant force, otherwise

F=gmM/r²

will not be correct. Hence the K travels through the universe as a quantum package, delivering the quantum package unaltered by the distance travelled between interactions. Due to a partial K transformation to K neutrinos, any massive body will diminish the universal flux of regular Ks that hits a target of EPs from the side of the massive body. The reduction in force from the Ks adds up to F=gmM/r², where F is the resulting force that presses the target particles towards the massive body. When we consider the chance of being hit by a K, we thereby also consider the chance of missing a hit by a transformed K (=K⁰), since it is this net lack of regular K-flux that we are really looking for when describing gravity.

We can rephrase our gravitational theory this way:

• An extremely dense, homogeneous K-flux encounters K-transforming matter.

• All Ks which interact with EPs do so by being absorbed, retained and emitted after a short time.

• Ks interact with elementary particles at an extremely high frequency, delivering and removing an energy package and a momentum at each interaction.

• The transfer of momentum from the K flux is directional because Ks are absorbed like a sum of vector impulses, but emitted at random (unless the EP moves).

• Only a minute proportion of absorbed Ks are transformed to K neutrinos, and therefore G can be almost proportional to the total mass of K-transforming matter.

• G = the transformation constant of K-transforming matter (K to K⁰).

• When matter transforms some Ks, the flux of regular Ks going out from matter will be slightly less than the flux of regular Ks towards matter.

• The average regular K-flux from outside minus the regular K-flux from matter = the surplus regular K-flux, which constitutes a particle pressure on a body of matter towards another body of matter, and vice versa.

• For analysing the geometry of the resulting force, we need to look at the transformed Ks which are emitted as K neutrinos (K⁰).

• The non-reactive K⁰ should balance out an incoming particle from the regular K-flux, and can therefore be subject to exactly the same geometrical analysis as normal gravitational forces from matter using the graviton. We simply calculate the effect of the non-reactive K⁰, and get Newton’s law of gravitation, F = GmM/r².

The attraction between masses works both ways, and is supposed to be symmetrical. The case about symmetry seems quite obvious, but it cannot be taken for granted that all types of matter will set up the same gravitational field. Since two bodies of matter no longer exercise a direct force on each other, this opens for new possibilities.

The most likely cause of the gravitational field is the electric absorption centres. They need some input to change the interaction amplitude of Ks to keep the electric field going. Hence they take the “sign” (plus and minus) from some Ks, and emit them as K neutrinos. Note that the sign of the K⁺ and the K^- is not charge per se, but only a way to indicate their preferences in EP interaction. But their interaction patterns results in what we know as the electric charge, as we shall see later.

Let us look a bit closer at the classical, symmetrical gravity, but start using the terms “gravitational matter” or “regular matter” to mean matter capable of setting up a gravitational field through K transformation.

Seen from a small mass m close to a galactic body M,

F = GmM/r²

can be seen as:

• G = the specific K transformation probability (amplitudes²) of gravitational matter.

• GM ~ the deficiency in the flux of regular Ks created by K transformation in the larger mass.

• m ~ the total target (interaction probability) of the EPs in the smaller mass.

• 1/r² ~ the space angle factor reducing the effect of the missing regular Ks after transformation to K⁰.

Consequence 7:

Take a regular K which in matter is transformed to a K neutrino. Wherever the K⁰ travels after emission it will always have a statistical counterpart in the form of a regular K with opposite direction which is part of the universal background K flux. Therefore a K neutrino can be treated mathematically as a virtual graviton, and all known mathematical formalism will then apply to our model of gravitation as a force by proxy.

At this point it is appropriate to point out that a gravitational theory which has elements of energy waves at the speed of light, complies very well with Einstein’s general theory of relativity in this respect. Einstein’s gravitational potential does not represent a force, but a Riemann’s curved space which acts by emitting energy waves at the speed of light. So even though it is commonly believed that gravity does not involve the propagation of energy, this is one way to interpret the math of the general theory of relativity, and this explanation would comply well with our description here. The curved gravitational space in general relativity describes the flux variations of the regular K particles. Hence the curvature of space does not exist as such, it is a mathematical representation of the net differences in K flux, imposed by matter. The curvature of space represents the net vector sum of regular K momentums, and therefore the space itself does not curve. So even though we recognize the correctness of the mathematical equations of the curved space, we do not see the general theory of relativity as a proper explanation of space, but as an explanation of K pressure differences (unless you count the K flux pressure as an intrinsic property of space)

The gravitational force is a force by proxy.

The gravitational force is executed by proxy, meaning that the force is executed by a third party – the background K flux. There is no force from one body of matter directly on another body of matter. The force pressing the bodies against each other is the universal background K flux and the tiny surplus which the background K flux represents, because matter emits some Ks with a lesser amplitude for EP interaction, and hence the K pressure from the side of matter is slightly less than the pressure from the background K flux.

The concept of a gravitational force by proxy has some far reaching consequences. Let us look at a body of matter M which receives a certain K flux. (See Fig. 4 again). In the process of transforming some Ks to K neutrinos, energy and momentum will be conserved, and the K neutrinos are emitted from M with the same angular distribution and with the same energy and momentum as regular Ks. So M is in balance, and could not care less how this twist of the K flux may affect another body m. At m some K neutrinos will pass through it without interacting, and the counterpart from the background K flux pushes m towards M. But at this point there is no saying that a force of the same magnitude pushes M towards m. Only if all matter happens to set up exactly the same modification of the K flux per unit mass will these forces be equal, so in general we must assume that

FA≠ FB

Even though in general we use that FA = FB. When we later look at galaxies we will see very radical examples of this symmetry breaking of gravitational forces. In the next chapter we shall look at a more subtle case.